Castle Rock, a dead volcano with three sheer sides, is now in the center of Edinburgh. It first attracted inhabitants, because of the natural defensive position it afforded, in about the year 850 BC. In the 7th century, Northumbrian Angles from northeast England colonized southeast Scotland. They built their fortress on Castle Rock, which they called Edwinesburh. This fort served as the Scots' southern outpost until 1018 when King Malcolm II established a frontier at the River Tweed. Nonetheless, the English sacked the city no less than seven times in subsequent centuries. Edinburgh really began to grow in the 11th century, when markets developed at the foot of the fortress. King David I held court at the castle starting in 1134 and founded the abbey at Holyrood. The first effective town wall was constructed around 1450 and circled the Old Town and the area around Grassmarket.

Edinburgh was sacked by the English during the reign of Henry VIII. But by 1603, King James VI of Scots also became King of England and moved his court to London, reducing the importance of the city. Though cultural and intellectual life continued to flourish in Edinburgh, the Act of Union in 1707 further reduced the city's political importance, uniting the two countries under a single parliament.

After the last Jacobite rebellion under Bonnie Prince Charlie, in the second half of the 18th century, a new city was created across the ravine to the north. The population expanded and defense was no longer vital. The thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment, like Hume and Adam Smith, distanced themselves from Edinburgh's Jacobite past.

The population of the city exploded in the 19th Century, to about four hundred thousand people. Though the growth of slums have caused the usual social problems, the cultural life of Edinburgh has blossomed in the 20th Century. With the rebirth of the Scottish parliament in the 1999s, Edinburgh welcomes visitors with a new sense of purpose and self confidence.

Calton Hill

Calton Hill, which affords a great view of the city, is crowned by what some people call Scotland’s Acropolis. It is actually the unfinished National Monument to commemorate the dead of Waterloo and was designed to be a replica of the Parthenon in Athens. There is also a Nelson’s Tower, commemorating the victory at Trafalgar. There are two observatories on Calton Hill: the Old Observatory, designed by architect James Craig in 1792; and the City Observatory, built in 1818, which has exhibitions and viewings of the night sky.

Edinburgh Castle

Visitors enter the castle from the Esplanade, a parade ground where the changing of the guard occurs on the hour. The Esplanade is also the venue of the world-famous Edinburgh Military Tattoo, the annual occasion on which, over a period of three weeks in August, the Army presents a lively program of music, marching and historical re-enactments under floodlights before large and appreciative audiences.

Sites within the castle proper include Mills Mount Battery, where a gun salute takes place on weekdays at one o’clock, St Margaret's Chapel, the oldest building in Edinburgh, the Palace, built between the 15th and 16th centuries, and the Scottish United Services Museum, which houses displays on the history of Scottish regiments. The castle dominates the town of Edinburgh and affords views of not only the city, but the surrounding countryside. It was the seat of Scottish Kings, and the historical apartments include the Great Hall, which now houses a collection of weapons and armor. The Royal apartments include a tiny room in which Mary, Queen of Scots gave birth to the boy who was to become King James VI of Scotland and James 1 of England upon the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603. The ancient Honors of Scotland - the Crown, the Scepter and the Sword of State - are on view in the Crown Room. Nearby is the Scottish National War Memorial, a building designed and created shortly after the First World War.

Grassmarket

For centuries, the Grassmarket was the place where public executions were held. It also served as the city's main weekly market after being granted a charter by James III in 1477. It is now filled with restaurants and pubs and is a favorite spot for nightlife.

Greyfriars Kirk

Greyfriars was the first church to open in Scotland after the Reformation and opened in 1620. It takes its name from the Franciscan friary which stood nearby. In 1638 the National Covenant was signed here, rejecting Charles I's attempts to impose episcopacy and a new English prayer book, and affirming the independence of the Scottish Church. Many who signed it were later executed. There is a small exhibition on the National Covenant, a display on the Kirks four hundred year history, and an original portrait of Greyfriars Bobby dating from 1867. Bobby was a Skye terrier who maintained a vigil over the grave of his master, an Edinburgh police officer, from 1858 to 1872. There are services conducted in Gaelic every Sunday at 12:30 PM.

Holyrood Park

Holyrood Park is former hunting grounds of Scottish monarchs, covering a square mile of varied landscape, including hills, moorland, lochs and fields. It is a little bit of untouched wilderness close to the city. The highest point is Arthur's Seat, measuring at 823 feet, an eroded stump of lava flow that erupted around 325 million years ago. It forms part of a volcano that includes Calton Hill and Castle Rock.

Museum of Scotland

Opened in 1998, the five floors of the museum trace the history of Scotland from its geological beginnings to the 1990s. The first floor depicts the beginnings of the land now known as Scotland, with an emphasis on the landscape and wildlife. The second floor explores how the early peoples of Scotland lived, from 6000 BC to 1100 AD. The third floor covers the Kingdom of the Scots until 1707 and the Act of Union. The fourth floor covers Scotland of the 18th and early 19th centuries, including the Jacobite risings and the Scottish Enlightenment. The fifth floor covers the history of Scotland to the beginnings of the 20th Century.

National War Museum of Scotland

This museum explores the relationship of Scotland and her people and war from the Napoleonic Wars to the D Day landings. Galleries include one depicting the influence of war on the history of Scotland, one about the Scottish military life, one showing weapons, equipment, and uniforms of the Scottish soldier, one displaying the Scottish soldier himself, one discussing the effects of war on the civilian population, and one showing battle through the eyes of the Scottish soldier.

St. Giles’ Cathedral

St. Giles’ is known as the High Kirk of Edinburgh. It is Presbyterianism's Mother Church and contains the Chapel of the Order of the Thistle, Scotland's chivalric company of knights headed by the Queen. Inside the church, near the entrance, is a life-size statue of John Knox, minister from 1559 to 1572; from here he preached his uncompromising Calvinist message and launched the Scottish Reformation.

Holyrood Palace

Holyrood Palace was built as a monastery in 1128. It was transformed into a Palace in 1498. Mary Queen of Scots lived here during her turbulent reign. It is now the official residence of the Queen when she is in Edinburgh and is used for ceremonies and state occasions. When the Queen is not in residence, several parts of the Palace are open to guided tours.

Visiting Edinburgh

Edinburgh is serviced by a good airport, but is also accessible by bus or rail from other parts of Great Britain. Buses are the only means of mass transit within the city.